1. ARGUMENT: It is providing reasons for the basis of the conclusion. Eg. Liberals are not Christians because they do not believe that Jesus Christ is God. Eg. Unbelievers in Christ cannot enter into the kingdom of heaven, because Christ is the only Way to the Father. (Questions, announcements complaints, compliments, apologies, etc are not arguments).

2. SYLLOGISM is a form of argument, constituted of three propositions: two premises and a conclusion. Eg. All men are mortal. Paul is a man. =Paul is mortal. Eg. Word of God is infallible. Bible is the word of God. =Bible is infallible. Eg. All men are sinners. Paul is a man. =Paul is sinner. Eg. No man is an angel. Paul is a man. =Paul is not an Angel. Eg. Those who do not believe in Christ are unbelievers. Liberals do not believe in Christ. = Liberals are unbelievers.

Eg.

All A is inside B                              

All B is inside C

All A is inside C

3. PROPOSITIONS: Proposition is a judgment in an intentionally fixed verbal form. KINDS: Hypothetical (if...then). E.g. If A is B, then C is D. E.g. If the theory of evolution is correct, then man is created not by God, but by monkeys. E.g. If the liberals have deliberately rejected their faith in Christ, then they are apostates. +Disjunctive (either...or). E.g. A is either B, or C. E.g. Liberals are either unbelievers or apostates. Categorical (is). E.g. A is B. E.g. The liberals are apostates.

4. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION: It has four parts: Subject term-about which the assertion is made; Predicate term - that which is asserted about the subject term; The copula : that which joins the subject and the predicate terms (is or is not); Quantifiers: the extent or the number of the subject (all, some, none). E.g. All A is B.  All flesh is grass (Isa 40:6). No fornicator, nor idolaters....shall inherit the kingdom of heaven (1Cor 6:9-10).

5. TERMS: Each proposition is made up of two terms. A term is a word or group of words capable of forming a constituent of a logical proposition. E.g. All Flesh is grass.

QUALITY AND QUANTITY

Difference occurring from the change in copula is quality (is, is not, was, was not, will, will not). They could make the proposition either affirmative or negative. E.g. Negative : E.g. (Its forms are A is not B;  No A is B). Sun is not black. No circles are squares. Man will not become God. E.g. Affirmative (Its forms are A is B; A is non-B). E.g. Earth is spherical. Sin is evil.  Man will die. God is non-man.

Difference occurring from the change in the quantifiers is quantity. They could make the proposition either universal (all or no) or particular (some or not all). Universal (Universal only means, all that is in the category defined by the subject, not that it applies to the whole universe). E.g. (Its forms are All A is B; No A is B). All men have sinned. None is righteous, no not one. Particular: (Its forms are Some A is B; Some A is not B). E.g. Some seed was scattered among the weeds. But there are some of you who do not believe.

FOUR TYPES OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

1. TYPE A: Universal Affirmative. (All A is B). E.g. All men are fallible. All men have sinned.

2. TYPE E: Universal Negative. (No A is B). (It is better not to use All A are not B; i.e., better say No dogs are friendly, rather than, All dogs are not friendly, which means that ‘some dogs are not friendly’). E.g. No men are perfect. None is righteous, no, not one. No student is brilliant – All students are not brilliant.

3. TYPE I: Particular Affirmative. (Some A is B). E.g. Some men are wise. Some seed was scattered among the weeds).

4. TYPE O: Particular Negative. (Some A is not B). The cow is not a man. Some men are not learned. But there are some of you who do not believe). (A and I are first vowels of affirmo, I Affirm; E and O are the first vowels of Nego, I deny)

DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS

Distribution is to terms what quantity is to propositions. A term is said to be distributed when it refers to all the members of its class. Distribution can be designated by a stated or implied all. Both the subject and predicate have distribution. Because both are terms.

1. TYPE A : (All A is B). The predicate will always include more than the subject, so the subject is always distributed and the predicate is always undistributed. e.g. All horses are four-legged animals. (All horses are part of the class ‘four-legged animals’). (Subject is distributed; predicate is undistributed). E.g. Whosoever believes in him will not perish (Jn 3:16). = ‘All who believe’ ‘will be among those who will not perish’ - (it makes no specific claim to include all those who will not perish). (Subject is distributed; predicate is undistributed).

2. TYPE E : (No A is B). Both subject and predicate are always distributed. e.g. No horses are two-legged animals. (= None of all the horses in the world are included in all the two-legged animals in the world. There are no horses among the bipeds).

3. TYPE I : (Some A is B). Both subject and predicate are undistributed. e.g. Some horses are white. (Some horses are some of the white things in the world). In affirmative propositions what is said applies only to those things specified by the subject.

4. TYPE O : (Some A is not B). Subject always undistributed and predicate always distributed. E.g. Some horses are not white. (In all of the white things in the world you will not be able to include some horses). *Thus universal subjects and negative predicates are distributed. Predicates of affirmative propositions are always undistributed. Predicates of negative propositions are always distributed.

TRUTH AND VALIDITY

1. Validity is the concern of the formal logic. It deals with the form of the argument, i.e., how well the argument is put together. The argument can be valid, even if the conclusion is false. E.g. All Asians are poor. All Indians are Asians. = All Indians are poor.

2. Truth concerns the content of the argument, i.e. whether the propositions correspond to reality. E.g. All men are sinners. Raju is a man. = Raju is a sinner. *A sound argument must be both valid and true.