RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL BELIEFS

Religion has an important place in determining the world views, shared meanings, values and motivations of the individuals of a society. The ways of thinking, believing and acting in religious matters can shape the character of a people. To understand the role of religion in American history it is essential to recognize the impact of the ideal of Christian religion on the American people. Christianity had great impact on the lives of Americans from the early days of settling. The early settlers took it granted that they represented Christendom. The Christian tradition gradually became the chief foundation stone of America’s intellectual development. It served to bring some degree of unity among different classes, regions and ethnic groups. All accepted Christianity at least in theory as their guide. All adhered to a core of common beliefs and values and irrespective of sects and denominations. Exceptions were minorities like Indians, new comers among the Africans and Jews. Thus in 1835 Tocqueville remarked that in America the Christian religion had kept the greatest real power over men’s souls. (For details see. Alexis De Tocqueville. Democracy in America. New York: Harper and row Publishers, 1966.p.268; Merle curti. The growth of American thought 3rd ed. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill publishing Company Ltd., 1964. pp. 5-29; H.J. lakshmi. The American democracy: A commentary and an Interpretation. New York: Viking press, 1948. pp. 265-322; James Bryce. The American common wealth. New York: AMS press, 1943. vol.3. p. 55.). According to him, there was hardly any human action, however private it may be, which does not result from some very general conception men have of God, of his relations with the human race, of the nature of their soul, and of their duties to their fellows. Nothing can prevent such ideas from being the common spring from which all else originates. (Alexis De Tocqueville. 1966. op. cit. p. 408).

            The Christendom was divided by the protestant Reformation triggered off by Martin Luther in 1517. The American colonies were influenced by Protestantism through the Puritan movement. Puritanism was a movement of religious renovation originally took shape in Great Britain. As a name it first emerged in 1560’s. it was vigorous effort to bring God discipline to this world. The reformers were determined to purify the visible church and called for a reformation of individual character. Puritanism was an important factor in American history. It provided and religious background to 75 percent of the people who declared their independence in 1776. the Puritans believed that they were the chosen people of God commissioned to fulfill a great mission in the world. Hence the plan of puritans in America was to build a “city upon a Hill”, a model Christian state that whole world could imitate. (For details see. S. E. Ahlstrom. A Religious history of the    American people. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972.  pp. 125-129; L. Ziff. Puritanism in America. New Americans: The Americans: The colonial Experience. New York: Random House,1958. pp. 3-31.) They accepted Bible alone as their supreme guide. Hence as for a model society they accepted God’s governance of Israel as described in Old Testament. They believe that if they kept the law of God, they would be blessed. The essence of the Puritans character was a mixture of practicality and faith in the power of God as expressed by Oliver Cromwell when he said: “Trust in God, my boys, and keep your power dry. (M. Mead. And Keep Your Power Dry: And Anthropologist Looks at the American Character. New York: William Moro and Company, 1967. P. 161.) the Puritans emphasized that could man serve God not by withdrawing from the world, but rather by following an occupation or calling that served the world. Since the victory of the righteous was assured, compromise retained the connotation of appeasement and duplicity. The moral and political implications of Puritanism which still persists include respect for the individual and for the dignity man, recognition of the ultimate authority of reason and allegiance to principles rather than to persons, to the doctrine of government by compact and by consent, and to spiritual and moral democracy. The Puritanism tradition had immense and disproportional influence on American culture. The Americans thought of themselves are having a special mission. They considered U.S. as new Israel chosen by God, to play a leading role for world’s redemption. In the 20th century, this ‘chosen nation’ ideal was important rationale in American foreign policy. (See H.S. Commager. The American Mind: An Interpretation of American Thought and Character Since the 1880s. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950. P.165; For More Details on Puritanism see G.M. Marsden. Religion and American Culture. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers, 1990. PP.12-18; S.E. Ahlstrom. op. sit. PP.85-98, 124-134; see also L. Ziff. op. cit.)

 The theology that most satisfactory met the Puritans cultures sense of affairs was that of John Calvin (1509- 1564). The followers of John Calvin were known as the Calvinists. The basic concept of Calvinism derived from the Christian tradition of Europe. The Calvinists believed that God was the absolute sovereign ruler of all creations and accepted Bible alone as their guide. The core of Calvinism was man’s sense of his own sinfulness and his consequent anxiety and fear of divine anger. Humans could do nothing to promote their salvation. The only the hope was the grace of God. It believed in salvation by faith. It ensured that the man who trusted in the grace of God and the atonement made by Jesus on the cross need no longer feel any anxiety on account of his sinfulness. Calvinism divide mankind into two groups: the elect and the demand. Those who had faith in God and obeyed the moral rules established by God might feel assured of their election. The rest of the mankind were damned. The Calvinist cast of mind saw America as a redeemer nation. It considered that it was the duty of the elect to impose their way of life upon the damned in order to see that the will of god was obeyed. It viewed life in terms of a battle between good and evil. And offered the hope that evil would be eventually overcome. It encouraged individuals to repudiate external authority and to have confidence in their own judgments and intuitions. The Calvinist creed promoted militancy and self-assurance and encouraged action in preference to contemplation. It regarded hard work at one’s regular occupation as a religious duty and had no place for monasticism or any other form of contemplative life. It prohibited expensive pleasures and encouraged thrift. It approved of economic success, provided that it was not obtained by unjust methods. Because of these characteristic features, the Calvinist creed had great influence in the shaping of the American civilization. (For details see A.M. Schlesinger Jr. “Foreign policy and the American Character” Foreign Affairs. Vol. 62. no. 1. (Fall1990) P. 2; L. Ziff. Op. cit. P. 27; H.B. Parkes. Op.cit. PP. 66- 70; G.M. Marsden. Op. cit. PP. 12-30.)

 One of the striking features of American religious experience is the bewildering verity of religious nominations. This American denominationalism has its roots in the disintegrating nature of Protestantism and in the new world environment of individualism and independent. Thus, American culture became individualist and pluralist in its religious experience. Even though there are innumerable multitude of denominations in the U. S…. they all preached the same morality of Christendom. Despite various diversities, most of the population inherited largely the Judo-Christian heritage and believed in a moral system built upon the Ten Commandments. The religious doctrines were not hostile to democratic and Republican institutions. Thus, there was only one mental current in America. Priests were in favor of civil liberties. (See H.S. Commager. 1950. op. cit. P;184; Max Lerner. Op.cit. P.711; G.M. Marsden. op.cit. P.75) As Tocqueville opined, for Americans. The ideas of Christianity and liberty are so completely mingled that it is almost impossible to get them to conceive of the one without the other (Alexis De Tocqueville. 1966.op.cit. P.270). The two basic concepts of Christian belief such as sin and soul were helpful in promoting political equalitarianism and individualism in America. The possession of an immortal soul gave each man an inner worth regardless of his social status. Thus, foundation was laid for political equalitarianism. This also promoted the individualistic character of Americans. Thus, they formed the habit of thinking of themselves in isolation and imagined that their whole destiny was in their own hands. The individualism was reinforced by the Puritan doctrine of “Calling”. “Calling” started in the reception of graced which marked the commitment to God and the release from the adversary. Gradually it grew into an   economic “calling” by which man’s vocation and its accumulated fruits became an outward sign of inner grace. Thus, Americans became deeply concerned with private property, as their culture was developed in a climate where individuality was linked with property as a sign of grace. (1bid. P. 478; See also Max Lerner op.cit. pp.205, 720.)

 There is relationship between the American religious experience and the success of democracy.  The dissenting pluralist tradition in religion strongly influenced the formation of a traditional of political dissent. The political ideas in the U.S. may be thought of as belonging to three strata: the inherited tradition of law and constitutionalism, to which the ideas of natural rights and liberalism were added in the eighteenth century and on which were superimposed the concepts of democracy and majority rule in the nineteenth century. The specific formation of the American belief in the individual rights was provided by John Locke. According to Locke men were endowed by nature with rights to life, liberty and private property. The state was based on a contract freely entered into by its citizens. The only true function of the government was to protect the citizens. The government might be changed or overthrown whenever it ceased to maintain these rights. These doctrines were in harmony with the actual experience and attitude of the Americans. (Z. Brzezinski and S.P. Huntington.  Political Power: USA/USSR Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1978. p. 20; H.B. Parkes. Op.cit. p.59; John Locke. Two Treatises of Government. Edited by t.1.Cook. New York: Hafner Press, 1947. pp. 121-147.)

About the American belief in individual rights Tocqueville wrote that the majority of them believe that a man by following his own interest, rightly understood, will be led to do that is just and good. They hold that every man is born in possession of the right of self-government and that no one has the right of constraining his fellow creatures to be happy. They will have a lively faith in the perfectibility of man. (Alexis De Tocqueville. 1945. op.cit. vol. 1. p. 409.)

The basic elements of the American political creed have remained relatively unchanged since the beginning of the nineteenth century. Thus, the Lockean ideas of liberty, Jeffersonian ideas of democracy and individual rights, and the rights of private property still pre-empt the American mind. The basic ideas of American political creed include equality, liberty, individualism, constitutionalism and democracy. (For details see Z. Brzezinski and S.P. Huntington. Op.cit. p.69; S.P. Huntington. American politics: The promise of Disharmony. Cambridge: The Belknap press of Harvard University Press, 1981.  p.33; R.A Heineman. Et.  Al. The world of the policy Analyst: Rationality, Values and Politics. Chatham, N.J, Chatham House Publishers, 1990. p. 69.) The national principle of the U.S. was revealed in The Declaration of Independence. It stated that We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Created with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed…. ( H.S Commager (ed). Documents of American History. 8th ed. New York: Appleton Century- Crofts.,1968. p. 100.) The strong religious sense of the country provided it a moralistic out look that a characterized the American diplomacy. In its approach to the outside world, this religious sense not only strengthened it missionary quality, but also reassured the people of an inner rightness of purpose in the nation’s conduct. The theme that America occupied a unique place among the nations of the world and thus has a special destiny, a mission among the nations of the earth, dominated the minds of Americans throughout most of America’s history. About America’s sense of mission Kissinger stated that This country has always had a sense of mission. Americans have always held the view that America stood for something above and beyond its material achievements. (U.S. Department of State Bulletin. October 19, 1973. p. 527. (Hereafter cited as DSB))

 It was considered as America’s destiny-its Manifest Destiny- to lead the world towards a higher and a better life. Coinciding with the puritanical intention of an establishing a “City upon a Hill”, the American aspired to re-create the world in the image of the U.S. There was also the belief that the despotism and evil were identifiable, fightable and eradicable. The nation’s experience in controlling the nature and eliminating obstacles have fostered an optimistic and activistic “can-do” attitude in approaching foreign affairs. This attitude together with the idea of America’s moral superiority led to the belief in the nation’s omnipotence. Hence cooperation with adversary was considered as both immoral and unnecessary. (See E. Beukel.  American perceptions of the Soviet Union as a Nuclear Adversary. London: Pinter publishers, 1989. pp. 135-138.)

In short, the religion in the U.S reinforced the values that determine the political goals. As Tocqueville opined, One cannot …. say that in the United States religion influences the laws or political opinions in details, but it does direct mores, and by regulating domestic life it helps to regulate state. (Alexis Tocqueville. 1966. op.cit. p. 268.)  Hence, he contended that the Religion which never intervenes directly in the government of American society should therefore be considered as the first of their political institutions, for though it did not give them the taste for liberty, it singularly facilitates their use thereof. (1bid. P. 269).

MAJOR VALUES OF AMERICAN PEOPLE

The major shaping forces of American heritage included the fact of fresh start by men with a passion for freedom and equality and an aversion to authoritarianism in the vast expanse of a continent with rich resources, the richness of racial and religious sects with adequate access into opportunity, and the optimism and pragmatism of a society in motion.

The major value orientations of the American culture included activity and work, achievement and success, moral orientation, humanitarianism, efficiency and practicality, science and secular rationality, material comfort, progress, equality, freedom, democracy, external conformity, nationalism, patriotism, individual personality, racism and related group superiority themes (For details see Max Lerner. Op. cit.  p. 48; R.M. Williams Jr. “Changing Value Orientations and Beliefs on the American scene” In the Character of Americans: A Book of Readings. Edited by M. McGiffert. Illinois: The Dorsey Press, 1970. pp. 212-230.)

The Americans consider the majority wiser than the minority and believe that people are the source of all legitimate political power. They believe in the dignity of the religious freedom, freedom of expression and competition, equal opportunity and ethical equality of all. Equality was identified as the most important and common factor in the American value system. The most striking aspect of American life was the general equality of conditions (See D.M. Potter “Economic Abundance and the Formation of American Character” In M. McGiffert (ed). 1970. op.cit. pp. 33-36, 47). This concept of equality referred to the ethical or fundamental equality of all and not to the economic equality. Americans were against institutionalizing any kind of equality. Thus, Tocqueville commented, “I know of no country…. where a profounder content is expressed for the theory of permanent equality of property” (Alexis D Tocqueville. 1945. op. cit. vol. 1. PP. 57-58).  The central aspects of American value system remind highly influential in the life of the U.S.  Thus, with regard to the major elements of the American value system there was small continuity than change. (S.M. Lipset. The First New Nation. New York: Basic Books, 1963. p. 103).  The national principle of the U.S., based on its values, ideals and expectations, was articulated on July 4, 1776 in The Declaration of Independence that, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable Rights that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure rights Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, that whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of ends, it is Right of people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government laying it foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to affect their safety and Happiness” (H.S. Commager. 1968. op.cit. p. 100). The fundamental purpose of the U.S. was laid down in the Preamble of the constitution, as, “... To form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common dependence, promote common Welfare and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and to our Posterity …” (Ibid. P. 139). The NSC. 68 of 1950 reiterated the fundamental purpose of the U.S as “to assure the integrity and vitality of our pre-society, which is founded upon the dignity and worth of the individual” (U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States. 1950, vol. I. Washington D. C: U.S. G.P.O. P 238. (Hereafter cited as FRUS).

VALUE BASED CULTURE AND POWER OF PUBLIC OPINION

The value orientations and expectations of the U.S. had a together formed its national identity. This special situation had the nation faced during the post war period was the communist expansionist tendencies under the leadership of the Soviet Union and China. Thus, during the post war period, the extension of democratic principles, self-determination of nations, arresting aggression at the earliest, ensuring national security, and assuring international Cooperation became values of exceptional significance for the U.S. the major elements of American creed which remained valid and relevant include the political ideas of equality, liberty, individualism, constitutionalism and democracy. What the Americans had in common was only this creed. Hence the creed constitutes the very basis of the American national identity. This national identity could be threatened by disillusionment with the political ideas of the American creed. Thus, the destruction of the political system could lead to the destruction of “the basis of community, eliminating the nation and in effect returning its members…… back to a state of nature.” (S.P. Huntington. op. cit. PP. 23- 24). Thus, American national identity and national existence were closely related to the adherence to the political ideals of the American creed. Hence during the post war period, the American people perceived threat to their national security from the growing power of communism. Because they believed that communism was a threat to their basic political ideals and thus to their very national existence. The American people fashioned their views and judgments in this context situation based on their own cultural materials. The decision makers were liable to move in tune with the culturally determined values, normative expectations and public opinion as their role was circumscribed by the desires of the people. About this culture – public opinion- policy relationship G.A. Almond aptly writes that, “Attitudes and opinions about foreign policy questions are not only to be understood as responses to objective problems and situations, but as imposed by culturally imposed qualities of character. These largely unconscious patterns of reaction and behavior strongly influence the perception, selection and evolution of political reality. At the level of mass opinion these ‘psycho-cultural’ characteristics condition patterns of thought and mood on foreign policy problems. At the elite level they effect patterns of policy making (G.A. Almond. The American People and Foreign Policy. New York: Harcourt Brace and co., 1950. p. 29). The U.S public opinion was very powerful and effective in determining the nation’s policies. The people had a very crucial role in the administration of the state. According to Tocqueville in the U.S the, “… Society acts by and for itself; There are no authorities except with itself… The people take part in the making of loss by choosing lawgivers, and they share of the executive power; one might say that they govern themselves, so feeble and respected is part left to the administration, so vividly is the administration aware of its popular origin, and so obedient is it to the found of power. The people reign over the American political world as God rules over the Universe. It is the cause and end of all things; everything rises out of it and is absorbed back into it” (Alexis De Tocqueville. 1966.op.cit.p. 53). The Americans acknowledged the moral and political authority of the people and held that public opinion was the surest arbiter of what is lawful and forbidden, true or false. Public opinion in U.S., “by some mighty pressure of the mind of all upon the intelligence of each… imposes it ideas and make them penetrate men’s very souls” (Ibid. p. 400). Thus, in the daily conduct of the society opinions passions, prejudice and interests of the people have great influence (Ibid. p.159; See also James Bryce, op.cit, Vol. 111. p.3). The manner in which public opinion finds its expression not only reflects the character of the people but also determines the policies of the state. The American people “grow warm suddenly and cool as suddenly; they are liable to swift and vehement outbursts of feeling which rush like wild fire across the country…” (James Bryce. op.cit. vol.111.  p. 61.) the nature of American democracy and public opinion could be compared to, “… one of those prehistoric monsters with a body as long as this room and brain the size of a pin; he lies there in his comfortable primeval mud and pays little attention to his environment ; he is slow to wrath – in fact , you practically have to whack his tale of to make him aware that his interests are being disturbed ;- but once he grasps this, he lays about him with such blind determination that he not only destroys his adversary but largely wrecks his native habitat” (Quoted in P. Sebury, “Ideology and Foreign Policy”, In Encyclopedia of American Foreign  Policy. Edited by A.D. Conde, New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1978. p. 404). Thus, so long as there is no immediate and sharply defined threat, the American attitude toward the world political situation is one of comparative indifference and withdrawal. But when the crisis becomes more sharpened the American responses to them become more specific, and tremendous energies become available for foreign policy. During post war period, at instance of the communist expansionism American faced such a crisis situation. 

INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY ON AMERICAN CULTURE

Religion has an important place in determining the world views, shared meanings, values and motivations of the individuals of a society. The ways of thinking, believing and acting in religious matters can shape the character of a people. To understand the role of religion in American history it is essential to recognize the impact of the ideal of Christian religion on the American people. Christianity had great impact on the lives of Americans from the early days of settling. The early settlers took it granted that they represented Christendom.  The Christian tradition gradually became the chief foundation stone of America’s intellectual development. It served to bring some degree of unity among different classes, regions and ethnic groups. All accepted Christianity at least in theory as their guide. All adhered to a core of common beliefs and values and irrespective of sects and denominations. Exceptions were minorities like Indians, new comers among the Africans and Jews.

Thus in 1835 Tocqueville remarked that in America the Christian religion had kept the greatest real power over men’s souls. (For details, see. Alexis De Tocqueville. Democracy in America. New York: Harper and row Publishers, 1966.p.268; Merle curti. The growth of American thought 3rd ed. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill publishing Company Ltd., 1964. pp. 5-29; H.J. Lakshmi. The American democracy: A commentary and an Interpretation. New York: Viking press, 1948. pp. 265-322; James Bryce. The American common wealth. New York: AMS press, 1943. vol.3. p. 55). According to him, there was, “Hardly any human action, however private it may be, which does not result from some very general conception men have of God, of his relations with the human race, of the nature of their soul, and of their duties to their fellows. Nothing can prevent such ideas from being the common spring from which all else originates” (Alexis De Tocqueville. 1966. op. cit. p. 408).

AMERICA AS CITY UPON A HILL. The Christendom was divided by the protestant Reformation triggered off by Martin Luther in 1517. The American colonies were influenced by Protestantism through the Puritan movement. Puritanism was a movement of religious renovation originally took shape in Great Britain. As a name it first emerged in 1560’s. It was vigorous effort to bring God discipline to this world. The reformers were determined to purify the visible church and called for a reformation of individual character. Puritanism was an important factor in American history. It provided and religious background to 75 percent of the people who declared their independence in 1776. The Puritans believed that they were the chosen people of God commissioned to fulfill a great mission in the world. Hence the plan of puritans in America was to build a “City Upon a Hill”, a model Christian state that whole world could imitate. (For details, see. S. E. Ahlstrom. A Religious history of the    American people. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972.  pp. 125-129; L. Ziff. Puritanism in America. New Americans: The Americans: The colonial Experience. New York: Random House,1958. pp. 3-31).

BIBLE AS THE SUPREME GUIDE. They accepted Bible alone as their supreme guide. Hence as for a model society they accepted God’s governance of Israel as described in Old Testament. They believe that if they kept the law of God, they would be blessed. The essence of the Puritans character was a mixture of practicality and faith in the power of God as expressed by Oliver Cromwell when he said: “Trust in God, my boys, and keep your power dry. (M. Mead. And Keep Your Power Dry: And Anthropologist Looks at the American Character. New York: William Moro and Company, 1967. P. 161).

The Puritans emphasized that man could serve God not by withdrawing from the world, but rather by following an occupation or calling that served the world. Since the victory of the righteous was assured, compromise retained the connotation of appeasement and duplicity. The moral and political implications of Puritanism which still persists include respect for the individual and for the dignity man, recognition of the ultimate authority of reason and allegiance to principles rather than to persons, to the doctrine of government by compact and by consent, and to spiritual and moral democracy.

The Puritanism tradition had immense and disproportional influence on American culture. The Americans thought of themselves are having a special mission. They considered U.S. as new Israel chosen by God, to play a leading role for world’s redemption. In the 20th century, this ‘chosen nation’ ideal was important rationale in American foreign policy. (See H.S. Commager. The American Mind: An Interpretation of American Thought and Character Since the 1880s. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950. P.165; For More Details on Puritanism see G.M. Marsden. Religion and American Culture. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers, 1990. PP.12-18; S.E. Ahlstrom. op. sit. PP.85-98, 124-134; see also L. Ziff. op. cit.).

CALVINISM. The theology that most satisfactory met the Puritans cultures sense of affairs was that of John Calvin (1509- 1564). The followers of John Calvin were known as the Calvinists. The basic concept of Calvinism derived from the Christian tradition of Europe. The Calvinists believed that God was the absolute sovereign ruler of all creations and accepted Bible alone as their guide. The core of Calvinism was man’s sense of his own sinfulness and his consequent anxiety and fear of divine anger. Humans could do nothing to promote their salvation. The only the hope was the grace of God. It believed in salvation by faith. It ensured that the man who trusted in the grace of God and the atonement made by Jesus on the cross need no longer feel any anxiety on account of his sinfulness.

Calvinism divided mankind into two groups: the elect and the demand. Those who had faith in God and obeyed the moral rules established by God might feel assured of their election. The rest of the mankind were damned. The Calvinist cast of mind saw America as a redeemer nation. It considered that it was the duty of the elect to impose their way of life upon the damned in order to see that the will of god was obeyed. It viewed life in terms of a battle between good and evil. It offered the hope that evil would be eventually overcome. It encouraged individuals to repudiate external authority and to have confidence in their own judgments and intuitions.

The Calvinist creed promoted militancy and self-assurance and encouraged action in preference to contemplation. It regarded hard work at one’s regular occupation as a religious duty and had no place for monasticism or any other form of contemplative life. It prohibited expensive pleasures and encouraged thrift. It approved of economic success, provided that it was not obtained by unjust methods. Because of this characteristic feature, the Calvinist creed had great influence in the shaping of the American civilization. (For details see A.M. Sclesinger Jr. “Foreign policy and the American Character” Foreign Affairs. Vol. 62.no. 1. (Fall1990) P. 2; L. Ziff.Op. cit. P. 27; H.B. Parkes.Op.cit. PP. 66- 70; G.M. Marsden. Op. cit. PP. 12-30).

DENOMINATIONALISM INDIVIDUALISM AND FREEDOM

One of the striking features of American religious experience is the bewildering verity of religious denominations. This American denominationalism has its roots in the disintegrating nature of Protestantism and in the new world environment of individualism and independent. Thus, American culture became individualist and pluralist in its religious experience. Even though there are innumerable multitudes of denominations in the U. S…. they all preached the same morality of Christendom. Despite various diversities, most of the population inherited largely the Judo-Christian heritage and believed in a moral system built upon the Ten Commandments. The religious doctrines were not hostile to democratic and Republican institutions. Thus, there was only one mental current in America. Priests were in favor of civil liberties. (See H.S. Commager. 1950. op. cit. P;184; Max Lerner. Op.cit. P.711; G.M. Marsden. op.cit. P.75) As Tocqueville opined, for Americans, “The ideas of Christianity and liberty are so completely mingled that it is almost impossible to get them to conceive of the one without the other” (Alexis De Tocqueville. 1966. op.cit. P.270).

SIN, SOUL AND EQUALITY. The two basic concepts of Christian belief such as sin and soul were helpful in promoting political equalitarianism and individualism in America. The possession of an immortal soul gave each man an inner worth regardless of his social status. Thus, foundation was laid for political equalitarianism. This also promoted the individualistic character of Americans. Thus, they formed the habit of thinking of themselves in isolation and imagined that their whole destiny was in their own hands.

The individualism was reinforced by the Puritan doctrine of “Calling”. “Calling” started in the reception of grace which marked the commitment to God and the release from the adversary. Gradually it grew into an   economic “calling” by which man’s vocation and its accumulated fruits became an outward sign of inner grace. Thus, Americans became deeply concerned with private property, as their culture was developed in a climate where individuality was linked with property as a sign of grace (1bid. P. 478; See also Max Lerner op.cit. pp.205, 720).

CHRISTIANITY AND AMERICAN DEMOCRATIC FREEDOM

There is relationship between the American religious experience and the success of democracy.  The dissenting pluralist tradition in religion strongly influenced the formation of a traditional of political dissent. The political ideas in the U.S. may be thought of as belonging to three strata: the inherited tradition of law and constitutionalism, to which the ideas of natural rights and liberalism were added in the eighteenth century and on which were superimposed the concepts of democracy and majority rule in the nineteenth century.

The specific formation of the American belief in the individual rights was provided by John Locke. According to Locke men were endowed by nature with rights to life, liberty and private property. The state was based on a contract freely entered into by its citizens. The only true function of the government was to protect the citizens. The government might be changed or overthrown whenever it ceased to maintain these rights. These doctrines were in harmony with the actual experience and attitude of the Americans. (Z. Brzezinski and S.P. Huntington. Political Power: USA/USSR Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1978. p. 20; H.B. Parkes.Op.cit. p.59; John Locke. Two Treatises of Government. Edited by t.1.Cook. New York: Hafner Press, 1947. pp. 121-147).

About the American belief in individual rights Tocqueville wrote that, “The majority of them believe that a man by following his own interest, rightly understood, will be led to do that is just and good. They hold that every man is born in possession of the right of self-government and that no one has the right of constraining his fellow creatures to be happy. They will have a lively faith in the perfectibility of man” (Alexis De Tocqueville. 1945. op.cit. Vol. 1. p. 409).          

The basic elements of the American political creed have remained relatively unchanged since the beginning of the nineteenth century. Thus, the Lockean ideas of liberty, Jeffersonian ideas of democracy and individual rights, and the rights of private property still pre-empt the American mind. The basic ideas of American political creed include equality, liberty, individualism, constitutionalism and democracy. (For details see Z. Brzezinski and S.P. Huntington. Op.cit. p.69; S.P. Huntington. American politics: The promise of Disharmony. Cambridge: The Belknap press of Harvard University Press, 1981.  p. 33; R.A Heinemann.  Al. The world of the policy Analyst: Rationality, Values and Politics. Chatham, N.J, Chatham House Publishers, 1990. p. 69.)

The national principle of the U.S. was revealed in The Declaration of Independence. It stated that, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Created with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed…” (H.S Commager (ed). Documents of American History. 8th ed. New York: Appleton Century- Crofts.,1968. p. 100).

INFLUENCE OF VALUES IN DIPLOAMCY

The strong religious sense of the country provided it a moralistic outlook that a characterized the American diplomacy. In its approach to the outside world, this religious sense not only strengthened it missionary quality, but also reassured the people of an inner rightness of purpose in the nation’s conduct. The theme that America occupied a unique place among the nations of the world and thus has a special destiny, a mission among the nations of the earth, dominated the minds of Americans throughout most of America’s history. About America’s sense of mission Kissinger stated that, “This country has always had a sense of mission. Americans have always held the view that America stood for something above and beyond its material achievements” (U.S. Department of State Bulletin. October 19, 1973. p. 527. (Hereafter cited as DSB).

It was considered as America’s destiny-its Manifest Destiny- to lead the world towards a higher and a better life. Coinciding with the Puritanical intention of an establishing a “City upon a Hill”, the American aspired to re-create the world in the image of the U.S. There was also the belief that the despotism and evil were identifiable, fightable and eradicable.

The nation’s experience in controlling the nature and eliminating obstacles have fostered an optimistic and activistic “can-do” attitude in approaching foreign affairs. This attitude together with the idea of America’s moral superiority led to the belief in the nation’s omnipotence. Hence cooperation with adversary was considered as both immoral and unnecessary (See E. Beukel.  American perceptions of the Soviet Union as a Nuclear Adversary. London: Pinter publishers, 1989. pp. 135-138).

The basic objective of the U.S. foreign policy has been to defend and promote the fundamental values of the U.S. society. Secretary of State Dulles emphasized this point when he said that the U.S. foreign policy sought, “To defend and advanced interests of the United States. These interests are of several kinds…. The life of our people and the physical safety of our home land… the well-being of our economy… the integrity of the principles of which ore nation was founded” (DSB. May 19, 1958.P. 199).

Later Dulles reiterated the importance of the ideals. He said, “Our people have never hesitated to sacrifice life, property and economic well- being in order that our ideals should not perish from the earth” (DSB. June 23, 1958. p. 1035).

In short, the religion in the U.S reinforced the values that determine the political goals. As Tocqueville opined, “One cannot …. say that in the United States religion influences the laws or political opinions in details, but it does direct mores, and by regulating domestic life it helps to regulate state” (Alexis Tocqueville. 1966. op.cit. p. 268). Hence, he contended that the “Religion which never intervenes directly in the government of American society should therefore be considered as the first of their political institutions, for though it did not give them the taste for liberty, it singularly facilitates their use thereof” (1bid. P. 269).

Thus, the Christian values are deeply entrenched in the American religious mind. The Christian values and worldview shape the historical consciousness of the American people and influence the way they perceive both the internal and external situations in the world. And the Christian values do play a major role in action orientation and action patterns of the American people and the government.

MAJOR VALUE ORIENTATIONS AND EXPECTATIONS IN THE U.S.

Thus, the major shaping forces of American heritage included the fact of fresh start by men with a passion for freedom and equality and an aversion to authoritarianism in the vast expanse of a continent with rich resources, the richness of racial and religious sects with adequate access into opportunity, and the optimism and pragmatism of a society in motion. The major value orientations of the American culture included activity and work, achievement and success, moral orientation, humanitarianism, efficiency and practicality, science and secular rationality, material comfort, progress, equality, freedom, democracy, external conformity, nationalism, patriotism, individual personality, racism and related group superiority themes. (For details see Max Lerner. Op. cit.  p. 48; R.M. Williams Jr. “changing Value Orientations and Beliefs on the American scene” In the Character of Americans: A Book of Readings. Edited by M. McGiffert. Illinois: The Dorsey Press, 1970. pp. 212-230.) The American consider the majority wiser than the minority and believe that people are the source of all legitimate political power. They believe in the dignity of the religious freedom, freedom of expression and competition, equal opportunity and ethical equality of all. Equality was identified as the most important and common factor in the American value system. The most striking aspect of American life was the general equality of conditions. (See D.M. Potter “Economic Abudance and the Formation of American Character” In M. McGiffert (ed). 1970. op.cit. pp. 33-36, 47.) This concept of equality referred to the ethical or fundamental equality of all and not to the economic equality. Americans were against institutionalizing any kind of equality. Thus, Tocqueville commented  

I know of no country…. where a profounder content is expressed for the theory of permanent equality of property. (Alexis D Tocqueville. 1945. op. cit. vol. 1^st . PP. 57/58)

The central aspects of American value system remind highly influential in the life of the U.S.  Thus, with regard to the major elements of the American value system there was small continuity than change. (S.M. Lipset. The First New Nation. New York: Basic Books, 1963. p. 103)

The basic objective of the U.S. foreign policy has been to defend and promote the fundamental values of the U.S. society. Secretary of State Dulles emphasized this point when he said that the U.S. foreign policy sought.

To defend and advanced interests of the United States. These interests are of several kinds…. The life of our people and the physical safety of our home land. the well-being of our economy… the integrity of the principles of which ore nation was founded. (DSB. May 19, 1958.P. 199)

Later Dulles reiterated the importance of the ideals. He said Our people have never hesitated to sacrifice life, property and economic well- being in order that our ideals should not perish from the earth. (DSB. June 23, 1958. p. 1035.)

The national principle of the U.S., based on its values, ideals and expectations, was articulated on July 4, 1776 in The Declaration of Independence that

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable Rights that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure rights Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, that whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of ends, it is Right of people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government laying it foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to affect their safety and Happiness. (H.S. Commager. 1968. op.cit. p. 100.)

The fundamental purpose of the U.S. was laid down in the Preamble of the constitution, as

…. To form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common dependence, promote common Welfare and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and to our Posterity … (Ibid. P. 139.) the NSC. 68 of 1950 reiterated the fundamental purpose of the U.S as “to assure the integrity and vitality of our society, which is founded upon the dignity and worth of the individual”. (U.S. Department of State. Foreign Relations of the United States. 1950. vol. I. Washington D. C: U.S. G.P.O. P 238. (Hereafter cited as FRUS)

The value orientations and expectations of the U.S. had a together formed its national identity. This special situation had the nation faced during the post war period was the communist expansionist tendencies under the leadership of the Soviet Union and China. Thus, during the post war period, the extension of democratic principles, self-determination of nations, arresting aggression at the earliest, ensuring national security, and assuring international Cooperation became values of exceptional significance for the U.S. the major elements of American creed which remained valid and relevant include the political ideas of equality, liberty, individualism, constitutionalism and democracy. What the Americans had in common was only this creed. Hence the creed constitutes the very basis of the American national identity. This national identity could be threatened by disillusionment with the political ideas of the American creed. Thus, the destruction of the political system could lead to the destruction of “the basis of community, eliminating the nation and in effect returning its members…… back to a state of nature.” (S.P. Huntington. op. cit. PP. 23- 24). Thus, American national identity and national existence were closely related to the adherence to the political ideals of the American creed. Hence during the post war period, the American people perceived threat to their national security from the growing power of communism. Because they believed that communism was a threat to their basic political ideals and thus to their very national existence.

The American people fashioned their views and judgments in this context situation based on their own cultural materials. The decision makers were liable to move in tune with the culturally determined values, normative expectations and public opinion as their role was circumscribed by the desires of the people. About this culture – public opinion- policy relationship G.A. Almond aptly writes that, Attitudes and opinions about foreign policy questions are not only to be understood as responses to objective problems and situations, but as imposed by culturally imposed qualities of character. These largely unconscious patterns of reaction and behavior strongly influence the perception, selection and evolution of political reality. At the level of mass opinion these ‘psycho-cultural’ characteristics condition patterns of thought and mood on foreign policy problems. At the elite level they effect patterns of policy making. (G.A. Almond. The American People and Foreign Policy. New York: Harcourt Brace and co., 1950. C. 29)

In the U.S public opinion was very powerful and effective in determining the nation’s policies. The people had a very crucial role in the administration of the state. According to Tocqueville in the U.S the

… Society acts by and for itself; There are no authorities except with itself… The people take part in the making of loss by choosing lawgivers, and they share of the executive power; one might say that they govern themselves, and respected is part left to the administration, so vividly is the administration aware of its popular origin, and so obedient is it to the found of power. The people reign over the American political world as God rules over the Universe. It is the cause and end of all things; everything rises out of it and is absorbed back into it (Alexis De Tocqueville. 1966.op.cit.p.53)

The Americans acknowledged the moral and political authority of the people and held that public opinion was the surest arbiter of what is lawful and forbidden, true or false. Public opinion in U.S. “by some mighty pressure of the mind of all upon the intelligence of each… imposes it ideas and make them penetrate men’s very souls” (Ibid.p. 400.) Thus, in the daily conduct of the society opinions passions, prejudice and interests of the people have great influence. ( Ibid.p.159; See also James Bryce. op.cit. vol 111. p.3)

The manner in which public opinion finds its expression not only reflects the character of the people but also determines the policies of the state. The American people “grow warm suddenly and cool as suddenly; they are liable to swift and vehement outbursts of feeling which rush like wild fire across the country…” (James Bryce.op.cit. vol.111.  p. 61.) the nature of American democracy and public opinion could be compared to

… one of those prehistoric monsters with a body as long as this room and brain the size of a pin; he lies there in his comfortable primeval mud and pays little attention to his environment ; he is slow to wrath – in fact , you practically have to whack his tale of to make him aware that his interests are being disturbed ;- but once he grasps this, he lays about him with such blind determination that he not only destroys his adversary but largely wrecks his native habitat ( Quoted in P. Sebury .” Ideology and Foreign Policy”. In Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy. Edited by A. D.  Conde. New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1978. p. 404.)

Thus, so long as there is no immediate and sharply defined threat, the American attitude toward the world political situation is one of comparative indifference and withdrawal. But when the crisis becomes more sharpened the American responses to them become more specific, and tremendous energies become available for foreign policy. During post war period, at instance of the communist expansionism American faced such a crisis situation.